End User
An end user is any person who uses or accesses an online platform, social media service, or digital advertising service for their own purposes. In the context of political advertising, end users are individuals who see political ads while browsing websites, using social media, or consuming digital content. Unlike business users who provide services or sell products through platforms, end users are the audience—the people who view, click on, and interact with political advertisements.
Legal Basis
"'end user' means any natural or legal person using core platform services other than for the purpose of providing intermediary services;"
— Article 2(23), Regulation (EU) 2022/1925 (Digital Markets Act)
While the TTPA Regulation (EU 2024/900) does not explicitly define "end user," it references the term in the context of individuals who are the recipients and viewers of political advertising. The definition is closely aligned with the Digital Markets Act and Digital Services Act, where end users are distinguished from business users.
Why It Matters
End users are the primary focus of the TTPA Regulation's transparency requirements. When you see a political ad on social media, search engines, or websites, you have the right to know who paid for it, why you're seeing it, and whether personal data was used to target you. The regulation exists to protect your ability to make informed decisions about political content.
Publishers and platforms must ensure that political ads are clearly labeled so end users can immediately recognize them as advertising rather than editorial content or organic posts. This transparency empowers citizens to critically evaluate political messages and understand who is trying to influence their opinions and voting behavior.
The targeting provisions of the TTPA Regulation are specifically designed to protect end users' personal data. If political advertisers use your online behavior, location, or other personal information to show you specific ads, they must follow strict rules about consent and data use. This gives you control over how your data is used in political campaigns.
Key Points
- End users are the audience: They are individuals who view and interact with political advertising, not businesses providing advertising services or content
- Protected by transparency rules: All political ads shown to end users must be clearly labeled with information about the sponsor and funding source
- Data protection rights: End users have specific protections when their personal data is used for targeting political advertisements online
- Right to report: End users can report political ads that lack proper labeling or transparency information through publisher-provided channels
- Informed decision-making: The TTPA Regulation helps end users distinguish between different types of content and make informed choices about political messages
- Cross-border protection: The regulation protects end users across all EU Member States, regardless of where the advertiser or publisher is located
End User vs. Business User
An end user consumes content and sees advertisements, while a business user provides services, sells products, or conducts commercial activities through a platform. In political advertising, a citizen scrolling through social media and seeing a campaign ad is an end user. A political party purchasing ad space or a marketing agency placing ads on behalf of a candidate is a business user (or sponsor).
The distinction matters because different obligations apply. Business users and sponsors must provide transparency information; end users have the right to receive that information. End users can report violations, while publishers and sponsors must respond to those reports.
| Aspect | End User | Business User |
|---|---|---|
| Role | Views and interacts with content | Provides services or sells products |
| In political ads | Sees political advertisements | Places or sponsors political advertisements |
| Obligations | None (protected party) | Must provide transparency information |
| Rights | Right to transparency and to report violations | Right to access platforms non-discriminatorily |